The Force of Classical Mechanics - YouTube

The Force of Classical Mechanics - YouTube

Mechanics is the branch of physics dealing with the behavior of physical objects when they are subjected to forces or displacements. Classical Mechanics is the field of mechanics that deals the physical laws that describe the motion of bodies under the action of a system of forces at every day sizes and velocities. Together they form bases of physics.

Classical mechanics is limited in terms of the sizes and speeds at which it is applicable. The is because when the size of the objects gets extremely small quantum mechanics comes into play but on the macroscopic level quantum mechanics produces essentially the same results as classical mechanics. Further more when the speed of the objects gets extremely fast; that is approaching the speed of light relativistic mechanics comes into play while at the speed experienced in every day life relativistic mechanics produces essentially the same results as classical mechanics. Furthermore at larger scales of size and distance celestial mechanics come into play however this is actually just an expansion of the principles of classical mechanics to larger scales.

Classical mechanics has virtually unlimited applications particularly useful at the scales of size and speed of everyday life since those were the scales it was developed on. Every aspect of human life is affected by the application of force in one manner or another. Classical Mechanics is the foundation of physics because it is where physics had it start and where its main participles were laid down. Classical Mechanics works fine within our every day experience but reaches its limits when dealing with the very fast the very small.

Double Slit Experiment II

The double slit experiment is based on the wave/particle duality of subatomic particles. What is so amazing about it is that over the years it has produced results that are among the strangest in quantum mechanics. It is the king of quantum weirdness being the strangest in science. The original double silt experiment used photons of light, but later versions used electrons but the results are the same The double slit experiment is actually responsible for starting Quantum Physics.

Over the decades numerous explanations have been proposed to explain the results of what on the surface is a very simple experiment. However resent experiments involving quantum erasure seem to have reduced the possibilities to being the information that is collected making the difference.

What seem to be happening is the in general subatomic particles tend to exist as wave functions that represent multiple possibilities. When specific information is measured about an event those possibilities are reduced to one producing the needed information. A new wave function of multiple possibilities is then produced consistent with that one possibility.

Putting it all together suggests that what we call reality is actually immaterial at its most fundamental level. At its most fundamental level the universe seems to be composed entirely of information. This makes it more like a sophisticated computer program than a world of material objects.

It is more than just the existence of the information the affects the experiment but its ability of it to eventually be accessed by the experimenter. That experimenter is ultimately a human being that is a conscience entity. The information that makes up reality seems to be calculated as need for a conscience entity so as to produce a consistent reality.

This shows that consciousness is a fundamental part of reality. This is not new age thought but what the observation of subatomic particles is actually telling us. It is consistent with the Biblical view of God as creator since the universe would be a result of His consciousness. It is also consistent with the Biblical view of God creating the Universe out of nothing.

Electromagnetism

Lighting Up Electromagnetism

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Electromagnetism is the study of affects of electric charges both at rest and in motion.  It is one of the four fundamental forces of nature and it is the main binding force of the atom outside the nucleus. Electromagnetic theory is important to understanding nature. Charge is the property of subatomic particle that gives rise to electric fields.

The charge of a particle can be negative, positive, or neutral. Charge is a fundamental property of matter. Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion resulting from the motion of electric charges. While the force lines associated with electric charges tend to be strait, magnetic force lines tend to be circular. Electrodynamics is the branch of physics dealing with the electromagnetic forces between electric charges.

In its most basic form electrodynamics deals with the affect of charges in relative motion. It is this mutual production of electric and magnetic fields that  forms the  bases of the unification of eclectic and magnetic fields. Every thing else in electromagnetism extends from this starting principles. 

Video on Motion

Relativity theory dhows that all motion is relative since it can only be measured relative to a given observer. These measurements are also reversible such that if I see someone moving a given direction at a given speed, he sees me going the opposite direction at the same speed.

Double Slit Experiment in Quantum Mechanics

The double slit experiment a famous some would say infamous experiment in. The experiment requires shooting light or other subatomic particles such as electrons at a screen with two slits in it. Warning things are about to get strange. 

When the double slit experiment is done with pure waves it produces an interference pattern. On the other hand pure particles like bullets would tend to produce two lines behind the slits. However subatomic particles like photons and electrons produce a wave like interference pattern, even when shot one at a time.  It is as though each particle goes through both slits at the same time. 

Even stranger if detectors are put near the slits to check which slit each particle really goes through they produce only the two lines like bullets would. 

Even stranger yet when the detectors are on but the no data is taken the result is a wave like interference pattern suggesting it is the conscience act of observing that actually changes the result.

Such a result is consistent with the Biblical view of God as creator. From a Biblical view point the universe would have resulted from God’s consciousness and so it should not be much of a surprise that we would find such a result.

Additional Reference Video on the Double Slit Experiment of Quantum Physics

Introducing the Genesis Mission article on Physics

Physics

This is a short introductory article on physics it in includes links to articles on Thermodynamics, Quantum mechanics, Relativity and other theories of modern physics. It is short because it is a entirely introductory article with most of the material on other pages that it links to.

Quantum Physics and the Bible.

Since the Bible is the word of God we should expect its view of reality to fit with the reality we see around us. The Bible describes events and ideas that do not fit well with the clock work deterministic universe of Classical Mechanics. The clock work deterministic universe made many of the events in the Bible seem to be impossible. However Quantum Mechanics eliminates this purely deterministic universe. It turns out the Quantum Mechanics is a good fit the Bible and the following examples show why this is the case.

Genesis 1:1, In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.
Exodus 20:11, For in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is…
Proverbs16:4, The LORD hath made all things for himself…
Hebrews 11:3, Through faith we understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that things which are seen were not made of things which do appear.

God made every thing from nothing and Quantum Mechanics shows this to be possible. Quantum Mechanics has what are called virtual particles that pop in and out of existence all the time. Wave-particle duality eliminates the idea of particles as solid ball like objects. Particles are exhibiting their wave nature have only a quasi existence where they are essentially every place at once. This alone suggest the Universe could be created out of nothing however the Big Bang is thought to have started with a quantum fluctuation from nothing. Now the Bible does not agree with the Big Bang theory but the point is that Quantum Mechanics supports a creation from nothing.

Colossians 1:17, And he is before all things, and by him all things consist.

This verse indicates that the universe is actively maintained by God. The indeterminacy of Quantum Mechanics is expected with intelligent control of the universe. General Intelligent Design is a perfect match to this concept. General Intelligent Design depicts quantum mechanical waves and their collapse as being the result of intelligent agents that determine the states resulting from the waves' collapse. In this case God would be the intelligent agent behind Quantum mechanical waves and their collapse

According to the Bible, Jesus Christ died on the cross to save us of our sin this salvation comes to the individual by acceptance of God’s offer as a free gift. He then rose from the dead on the third day. Following His resurrection Jesus was no longer restricted in space. He could now appear at will where he would and then disappear again.  Even a locked room was not a problem since Jesus appeared to his disciples inside as locked room and then He then disappeared again.

Quantum Mechanics provides a possible scientific description of these events. A particles wave function can have a high probability at one point and a low or non in another. If the waves swap positions then the probabilities would be swapped and a particle which is in the first position will instantly jumps to the other. If a wave function starts with a high probability outside a locked room and a low or zero probability inside a locked room and that wave function changes so that it has a high probability inside a locked room and a low or zero probability outside a locked room then the object would suddenly appear inside the locked room.

If Jesus started out side a locked room His body would have wave function starts with a high probability outside the locked room and a low or zero probability inside the locked room. If He could change His wave function at will; not a stretch since He is God; to a high probability inside a locked room and a low or zero probability outside a locked room then He would suddenly appear inside the locked room. Changing His wave function back again He would then disappear again. This provides a possible scientific description of the post resurrection appearances and disappearances of Jesus. This is just a possible description of how He could do these things and in no way detracts from the miraculous nature of these events.

The existence of the soul and free will have come under attack by two philosophical concepts materialism and determinism. Materialism is the theory that the only reality that exists is physical matter and that everything can be explained in terms of matter physical phenomena including mind, thought, feeling, consciousness and will. Determinism is the doctrine that all events are fully determined by preceding events and conditions including human choices and actions.  As a result of these doctrines freedom of choice is considered illusory. It needs to be realized that modern studied of neurology do allow any consideration of dualism is dealing with the mind / brain issue. Only theories that assume from the start that them mind is nothing but a by product of the brain are allowed consideration so it is no surprise that there conclusion leave not place fore the sole or free will.

Both materialism and determinism fit well classical mechanics but quantum mechanics refutes both ideas. Under quantum mechanics the future position of a particle can not be determined precisely which refutes determinism. Under quantum mechanics particles do not have an exact position and can be everywhere at once which refutes materialism. By refuting materialism and determinism quantum mechanics also refutes the naturalistic view of the mind that is the idea that the mind is nothing but the neuron activity of the brain opening the door to two alternatives dualism and quantum mind theory. Dualism where the mind and brain are totally separate and quantum mind theory which depicts the brain as a quantum computer. Both ideas allow for free will and the possibility of life after death.

Quantum mechanics allows for a new theory of dualism where the mind and brain are separate but connected by quantum entanglement. Quantum mechanics then becomes the means of mind / brain interactions.  Based on this view mind is not limited to the brain thus can have free will and survive the death of the brain.

Quantum mind theory says that the mind results from quantum activity in brain. Basically the brain is seen as quantum computer where quantum indeterminately allows for the possibility of free will. Quantum nonlocality and entanglement allows for the possibility of the mind surviving the death of the brain.

The point is quantum mechanics provides for the possibility of a non materialistic mind. So is there evidence for a quantum mechanical aspect to the brain. Yes: in he synaptic activity in the brain. Calcium ions that trigger exocytosis needs to cross a barrier to the synaptic vesicle and the Calcium ions can not classically cross this barrier. As a result quantum tunneling is needed fore the Calcium ions to cross this barrier but the odds of this occurring are 1 in 10,000,000.  The problem is that the functioning of the brain requires this quantum tunneling to occur on demand. The only way to get quantum tunneling on demand is for the mind to be able to control quantum events.

This means that the mind must be a result of more than synaptic activity. There needs to be an immaterial aspect to the mind that does not depend on the brain and that controls this quantum tunneling.

As a result quantum mechanics shows the Biblical view of man is possible. It allows for the possibility of free will and the possibility of an eternal soul.

The point is Quantum mechanics allows for possibilities that classical mechanics does not. Consider what a being with total control of quantum phenomenon could do such a being would literally be capable of miracles. For over 200 years the idea of miracles has been criticized. However quantum mechanics shows how miracles could be possible. It is actually powerful support for the truth of the Bible.

Force It Moves Things

Force: That which causes a free body to undergo acceleration.

There are four fundamental forces in Nature.
Gravity: The mutual attraction of all matter in the universe.
Electromagnetism: The mutual attraction and repulsion of charged partials.
Weak nuclear force: Regulates some types of nuclear decay including Bata decay.
Strong nuclear force: The Binding force of the atomic nucleus.

Forces causes mater to accelerate which is the main function of force by definition. It can overcome other forces such as friction gravity. The Strong nuclear force overcomes the mutual electromagnetic repulsion of protons that would blow every atomic nucleus apart. Force also holds things together. The electromagnetic force holds an object together including your body and the strong nuclear force holds atomic nuclei together. It can break things apart such as bombs or the force resulting from ramming two things together which can cause them to shatter and the peaces to fly apart.

All force causes acceleration regardless of its source. Force can also stop acceleration by resisting another force. Force holes thing together so force does indeed bind us together so it looks like Ben Kenobi got it partly right. Force makes our existence possible.

The Interpretations of Quantum Physics

The interpretations that follow areeforts to explain what is really going on behind Quantum Mechanics. Each often has unique basic concepts and they are not necessarily mutually exclusive since there is some overlap of concepts.

The thought experiment called Schrödinger's cat involved placing a cat in a sealed box with a vile of poison that would kill the cat if broken, a radioactive material and a gaiter counter set to drop a hammer on the vile of poison if it detects a radiometric decay event. When the cat is later observed it is found to be ether alive or dead and each these interpretation has a different description of the state of the cat before it is observed.

According to the Copenhagen interpretation a quantum particle doesn't exist in any one state but exists in all of it’s possible states at once. Once observed a quantum particle is essentially forced into one of the possible states and that is the state that is actually observed. Since it may be forced into a different state each time is why quantum particles behave erratically. The state of a particle being in all possible states at once is called an object's coherent superposition. When an object is observe the superposition collapses the object is forced into one of the states of its wave function. Schrödinger's cat would be both dead and alive at the same time until actually observed. Ultimately the only thing that really matters are the experimental results it does not really seek to explain what it happening behind the experimental results. Currently it is the most popular interpretation, but it is losing ground.

The consistent histories interpretation works backwards from the result of an experiment and says that only a few possible histories are consistent with quantum mechanics and that Quantum mechanics simply predicts the probabilities of various alternative histories Schrödinger's cat is either alive or dead but not both Quantum mechanics just gives the probability of which it may be. This idea is not very popular because it still doesn't explain how a particle can go through two slits and interfere with itself and it is considered by some to be pretty much the same as Copenhagen.

The Transactional interpretation sees quantum mechanical waves as stand waves in space time that constructively interfere were the particle is and destructively interfere every place else. These waves go both forward and backward in time. There is an "exact canceling" of waves so that is no "net" energy travels backwards in time. In the case of Schrödinger's cat tt is alive until the interference patterns line up in the sample to result in a decay event.

The Bohm interpretation or pilot-wave theory; depicts the quantum wave as guiding the particle. It is totally deterministic and good at explaining quantum phenomenon but requires a large number of hidden variables that can not be directly measured. The hidden variables have the side affect of rendering the interpretation untestable. Schrödinger's cat is alive until one the pilot-waves in the sample to causes a decay event.

The many-worlds interpretation sees the world as constantly splitting off into multiple universes in which every possible quantum event occurs. This fits perfectly with Evolution even the most improbable events occurred in some of these universes. Schrödinger's cat the universe keeps spitting off into each alternative in one the cat lives and in the other dies. They both happen in different quantum universes. There is no evidence for this interpretation since the alterative worlds would be forever out of reach. While quantum interference between adjacent worlds has been suggested, the possible evidence for it. Successful interpretation of single particle interference is not unique to the Many-worlds interpretation. So acceptance of this interpretation is purely philosophical and not scientific since it can not be tested.

With consciousness causes collapse consciousness causes collapses the quantum mechanical waves. It is usually associated with observation. There is some supporting evidence for this though the evidence is not exclusive to this interpretation. It is compatible with General Intelligent Design as well. This supporting evidence comes from the human brain. It turns out that synaptic activity in the brain requires quantum tunneling on demand. This shows some degree of control by the mind of quantum wave functions. Thus view fits well with both New Age / Hinduism, and the Christian world view. With New Age / Hinduism it provides a way for the mind to interact with the world beyond the five senses. With the Christian world view, since God is the ultimate mind it provides a model for his interaction with our world. Schrödinger's cat It would be both alive and dead until observed then the mind of the observer would collapse the wave function choosing one or the other. It is similar to the Copenhagen interpretation in this regard.

General Intelligent Design also known views quantum mechanical waves and their collapse results from intelligent agents that determine the states resulting from the waves' collapse. These intelligent agents could be one or more intelligent beings or mechanisms preprogrammed by an intelligent being. This is supported by evidence of synaptic activity in the brain requiring quantum tunneling on demand showing some degree of intelligent control of quantum wave functions. This interpretation fits well with the Christian world view. The idea of an intelligence controlling the universe at its fundamental level fits well with God as described in the Bible. In the case of Schrödinger's cat, the cat is a live until the controlling intelligent agent decides to cause a decay event to takes place and then the cat dies.

The relationship between the mind and Quantum Mechanics is mentioned here because it provides evidence in support for the last two interpretations consciousness causes collapse and General Intelligent Design. It turns out that the synaptic barriers of dendrite brain cells are too thick for nerve signals to classically cross. This means that nerve signals need to use Quantum tunneling to cross the dendrite synaptic barrier. The odds of the nerve signal tunneling across the dendrite synaptic barrier are 1 chance in 10,000,000, Yet for our brains to function these tunneling events need to occur on demand this is evidence for the mind being able to control quantum phenomenon and against the naturalistic model of the mind as well.

In conclusion there are many ways of interpreting Quantum Mechanics. Acceptance or rejection of each often has more to do with philosophy than science. each fits better with some philosophical views than others and each interpretation differs in how it sees the fundamental nature of reality.

Motion in Physics How it Moves

Motion: The change in an object’s location of with respect to time.

Strait line motion is the most basic form of motion. It is strait ling with no force involved thus no acceleration and a constant velocity. Circular motion is motion around a central point it results from a force being applied to an object at a right angle to the objects motion such as gravity keeping a satellite in orbit is a good example.

Relativity theory shows that all motion is relative since it can only be measured relative to a given observer. These measurements are also reversible such that if I see someone moving a given direction at a given speed, he sees me going the opposite direction at the same speed.

Motion is describes the changing of location of an object. Motion can be both strait and curved. It can only be described relative to a chosen point of reference. Motion is how we get from place to place.

The Quantization in Quantum Mechanics

Quantization is the situation where physical quantities like position, energy and momentum can have only certain discrete values. In free empty space a particle’s position, energy and momentum are continuous. If the particle is bound to a particular area of space can these properties can only have certain discrete values. The energy contained in a given frequency of electromagnetic waves is quantized in that it always has the same value at the same frequency. The electromagnetic energy is found in discrete packet called photons.

The quantization of the energy of an electron inside an atom explains much of the behavior of atoms such as why atoms emit only discrete frequencies of light. An electron that is in a low orbit of an atom can absorb a photon causing the electron  to jump to a higher orbit. The electron then emits a photon jumping back to the lower orbit.

The quantization of space-time is based on several natural units proposed by Max Planck that are based on five universal physical constants: Gravitational constant, Reduced Planck constant, Speed of light in a vacuum, Coulomb constant, and Boltzmann's constant

While most of them have no physical significance two of them Planck Length and Planck Time are the smallest possible measurements of space-time according our current understanding of the laws of Physics because of the  uncertainty principle when a plied to these scales. This suggests that time and space themselves are Quantized.

Planck Length is the smallest measurement of length that has any meaning with in the laws of physics as we understand them today and Planck Length is about 1.616 252 × 10⁻³⁵ m.

Planck Time is the amount of time it takes a photon to cross a Planck Length. It is the smallest measurement of time that has any meaning with in the laws of physics as we understand them today and Planck Time is about 5.391 24 × 10⁻⁴⁴ s,

Quantization requires physical quantities like position, energy and momentum to have discrete values explaining much of what goes on in side atom and based on our current understanding of the laws of physics it suggest that time and space are quantized.

The Point of Matter in Physics

Matter: Anything that has mass and occupies volume. It is the general term for the substance of which all physical objects are made.
Mass:  In the generally sense it is the amount of matter in an object. It is the term for two properties of matter that are equal in value: inertial mass gravitational mass.
Inertial Mass:  The resistance of a body to acceleration when responding to force.
Gravitational Mass: Property of an object that determines the strength of its gravitational field and its reaction to gravity.           

The existence of a relationship between the inertial and gravitational mass of an object is evident from the fact that they have same the value. However General Relativity shows that inertial and gravitational mass are two aspects of the same thing.

Special Relativity shows that an objects mass is equivalent to the amount of energy an object contains.

The SI unit of mass is the kilogram which is a mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram. It is based on the gram which is the mass of 1cm3 of water and that kilogram is the mass of 1000 cm3 of water.

There are 3 main states of matter with distinctions based on differences in bulk properties. They form a triad with each one able change directly to the other two. Other forms are called states exist but they mainly are variations of these three.

Thee Main States of Matter

Solid – A definite volume and definite shape.
Liquid - Definite volume but no definite shape.
Gas    - No definite volume or shape.

Plasma is commonly called the 4th State of Matter. It is an ionized gas where electrons have been freed their atoms; usually by heat. It is mainly an extreme form of gas with all defining characteristics of a gas that is no definite volume or shape. It is the most common form of normal matter.

Normal Matter is composed of atoms. Atoms are a nucleus; made of protons and neutrons; with electrons around it. This form of matter in what we commonly experience. Matter makes up everything around us, everything we see, everything we touch and even our bodies.

Matter is one of the three main parts of the Universe Space, Time and Mass. (matter) Relativity shows them to be inter-related in that space and time are so interrelated that they form a single entity called space-time. Furthermore mass warps space-time forming gravity and the motion of mass contracts both space and time.

In common experience matter is what makes up objects around us and Physics has shown that it to be a lot more. Matter is a fundamental part of the universe.

Quantum Physics and Quantum Nonlocality

Quantum Nonlocality: The phenomenon by which measurements made at a subatomic level necessarily refutes the notions of local realism.The basic principle is that particles of matter are not restricted to local interactions. They can have interactions outside their local system with no limit on distance.

A cording to Bell's Theorem developed by John Stewart Bell shows that no physical theory of local hidden variables can ever reproduce all of the predictions of Quantum Mechanics. This does leave open the possibility of non-local hidden variables.

The implications are that subatomic particles clearly exhibit non-local behavior showing that our notions of location do not apply at the fundamental levels of reality. Quantum Nonlocality creates a link between the physical and metaphysical.

Quantum Mechanics and Quantum Entanglement

Quantum Entanglement: A phenomenon in which the quantum states of two or more objects have to be described with reference to each other, even though the individual objects may be separated in space. This results in a correlation between the observable physical properties of the systems such that a change in one object causes an instantaneous change in the other.

Special Relativity is generally thought to prevent classical information from being sent faster than light by this means. One reason is that the two particles need to be near each other to become entangled, or they need an intermediate particle, which has to be near one particle and then the other. However this would not prevent sending information faster than light in cases where the sender and receiver were originally near each other and then separated such as s apace ship that leaves Earth and uses such a means for communications.

Quantum entanglement is a quantum effect that has no parallel in Classical mechanics.

Quantum Tunneling of Quantum Mechanics

Quantum tunneling: The process by which a particle gets across a barrier that it can not classically pass.

Quantum Tunneling is related to Wave-particle duality in that it is a result of the wave nature of a particle. The probability of the particle getting through the barrier drops exponentially with the thickness of the barrier.

When the wave comes in contact with the barrier most of it bounces off the carrier but some passes through the barrier; however it decays exponentially with the thickness of the barrier.  Such that the amplitude of the initial wave increases then the amplitude of the wave on the opposite side of the barrier increases. If the barrier thickness increases, the amplitude of the wave on the opposite side of the barrier decreases. If the energy of the initial wave increases, (wavelength decreases) the amplitude of the wave on the opposite side of the barrier increases. If the waves energy greater than that of the barrier tts all passes through the barrier. With a longer wavelength For particles most of them bounce off while a few instantly get through.

In theory Quantum tunneling is valid at the macroscopic but the odds of it occurring are extremely small. There is a non zero probability that you could run you cart into a brick wall an suddenly find yourself safely on the other side. However please don’t try it because the odds of it happening is so small as to be impossible by any reasonable definition.

Tunneling gets subatomic particles across barriers they normally can not cross. The number of particles that gets across the barrier drops exponentially with the barrier thickness. The number of particles that gets across the barrier increases with the energy of the particle. Quantum tunneling is a purely quantum effect. It has no counter part in Classical mechanics. It could theoretically occur on the macroscopic scale but the odds are too small to ever see it happen.

This is an article on the quantum effect known as Superconduction

Superconduction: The property that occurs in certain materials below a characteristic temperature where they have an electrical resistance of exactly zero.

Superconduction was discovered in 1911 but was not understood for years do to the lack of a theory to understand it. When a critical temperature is reached for a particular substance the electrical resistance will suddenly drops to zero.  The basic theory is that at the critical temperature electrons become coupled over a ranger of about 1,000 X the spacing of the conductor’s lattice with a binding energy that is the result of vibration that the electrons cause in the lattice. Called cooper pairs, the coupled electrons effectively becomes a boson and condense into the ground state. The result is that each coupled electron helps the other over come any resistance encountered from the lattice.

The Meissner Effect is where a magnetic field is expelled from a superconductor during the transition to the superconducting state that is caused by electric currents generated near its surface by the applied field. The magnetic field of these currents cancels out the applied magnetic field within the superconductor. This causes the magnetic levitation associated with superconductors.

Superconductivity is a purely quantum effect that has no counter part in classical physics. It’s most commonly known effect is magnetic levitation. It is one of two purely quantum effects that are seen on a macroscopic scale.

Atoms, Their Every Place

Atom: The basic unit of matter that consists of a dense, central positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

The Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment was suggested by Ernest Rutherford and conducted in 1911 by Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden. It Involved shooting alpha particles (He nuclei) at a gold foil to observe how they are scattered by the gold on a screen. It probed the structure of the Atom.  

If it were a solid mass few if any alpha particles would get through. If negative electron were embedded in a thin positive mass all of the alpha particles would get through. However most of the alpha particles get through with some being scattered by the small positive nucleus.

Rutherford Conclusion was that the atom is mostly empty space with a small positive nucleus surrounded by electrons scattered through out the surrounding space. In such a model the electron can not stand still since if they did they fall into the nucleus

This problem led to modeling the atom as a solar system called the planetary model with electrons orbiting the nucleus like planets around a star. The problem with the planetary model is that electrons are charged particles and an accelerating charge emits light loosing energy and this would cause the electron to spiral into the nucleus.

The Bohr Atomic Model

Broglie had shown earlier that particles have wave like propertied. Bohr then used this by showed that these waves could be bent into orbits like those expected for an electron with the result that electrons can only occupy those orbits with exactly a whole number of wavelengths. In these orbits the waves are add together with constructive interference. If an orbit has a fractional number of wavelengths the wave would destructively interfere and not persist so an electron can not occupy such an obit. The result is that that electrons jump from orbit to orbit emitting photons when going to a lower orbit and absorbing photons are when going to a higher orbit. It turns out that transitions between the possible electron orbits, matches the spectral lines that are actually observed in hydrogen. This was a major step in development quantum Mechanics.

Further Development

Studying elements other hydrogen included the effects of multiple electrons resulted in the electron orbital five of which are shown above. They are places in an atom where electrons can actually be found. The shapes of these orbitals were originally found mathematically and they have long been viewed as purely mathematical abstractions that were never expected to be seen. Physics students have long been told this however field-emission electron microscopy has changed this.

In conclusion the imaging of actual electron orbitals was a surprise but it vividly shows the accuracy of Quantum Mechanics.

The Quantum Effect know as Superfluids

Superfluid: A liquid that has no viscosity and infinite thermal conductivity.

Superfluids appears as normal liquids but flow without friction past any surface allowing it to continue to circulate over obstructions and through pores in its container do only to its own inertia.

All of the atoms in a superfluid exist in the same quantum state so they all have the same momentum such that if one moves they all move. This allows superfluids to move without friction even through the tiniest of cracks. Superfluid helium will flow up the sides of a jar and over the top.

Superfluity is a purely quantum effect that has no counter part in classical physics. It is one of two purely quantum effects that are seen on a macroscopic scale.

The Principle of Quantum Mechanics called the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Uncertainty Principle: The principle of Quantum Mechanics that there is a limit on the accuracy of simultaneous measurement of physical quantities like a particle's position and momentum.

The Uncertainty Principle was published by Werner Heisenberg in 1927  it is based on the fact that the light needed to observe a subatomic particle will disturb it making measurements uncertain though it goes way beyond that.

Planck's constant is so small for the uncertainty principle does not show up in the macroscopic world even though it is significant in the subatomic world nut it results in the fact that the more accurately one measures a particle's position the less accurately one can measure its momentum and one measures a particle's momentum the less accurately one can measure its position. This does not happen just because the act of measurement disturbs the system; which it only does sometimes; it is actually related to Wave-particle duality. The same principle applies to other quantities like energy and time.

More recent developments involving the debate between determinism and freewill. The idea is that the uncertainty principle is a possible avenue for allowing for freewill in neurology. The evidence involves quantum, mechanical processes like tunneling being involved in synapse activity.

The Uncertainty Principle shows us that we are limited in our ability to make measurements of the subatomic world. It shows that there are limits to our possible knowledge about the universe.

The Quantum Mechanics Principle Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle

The Uncertainty Principle: The principle of Quantum Mechanics that there is a limit on the accuracy of simultaneous measurement of physical quantities like a particle's position and momentum.

The Uncertainty Principle which was published by Werner Heisenberg in 1927 was based on the fact that the light needed to observe a subatomic particle will disturb it making measurements uncertain though it goes beyond that.

Planck's constant is too small for the uncertainty principle to show up in the macroscopic world but it is significant in the subatomic world nut it results in the fact that the more accurately one measures a particle's position the less accurately one can measure its momentum and one measures a particle's momentum the less accurately one can measure its position. This does not happen just because the act of measurement disturbs the system; which it only does sometimes; it is actually related to Wave-particle duality. The same principle applies to other quantities like energy and time.

There has been a more recent development involving the debate between determinism and freewill. The idea is that the uncertainty principle is a possible avenue for allowing for freewill in neurology. The evidence involves quantum, mechanical processes like tunneling being involved in synapse activity.

The Uncertainty Principle shows us that we are limited in our ability to make measurements of the subatomic world. It shows that there are limits to our possible knowledge about the universe.